Inter- and intra-cultural variation in learning-through-participation among Hadza and BaYaka forager children and adolescents from Tanzania and the Republic of Congo

Abstract

We examined cross-cultural variation in children’s learning through participation in economic work in two forager societies; the Hadza of Tanzania and the BaYaka of Congo. We used observational data from 46 Hadza (41% female) and 55 BaYaka (49% female) children and adolescents between the ages of 3 and 18, interview data from 74 Hadza (49% female) and 52 BaYaka (56% female) adults, and ethnographic observations from both populations. Results show that by providing tools, assigning chores, and foraging with children, Hadza and BaYaka adults provide opportunities for autonomous learning by facilitating participation. Furthermore, while both Hadza and BaYaka children forage alongside adults when they can be of help, Hadza children were more likely than BaYaka children to forage independently, and BaYaka children were more likely than Hadza children to participate in domestic tasks. We argue that these strategies provided children with opportunities to learn while contributing economically.