Acknowledgements: The authors acknowledge the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (HYPERION, grant agreement No. 756962), Cambridge Royce facilities grant EP/P024947/1, Sir Henry Royce Institute—recurrent grant EP/R00661X/1 and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) (grant agreement Nos. EP/R023980/1, EP/T02030X/1 and EP/S030638/1). This work was co-financed by Military University of Technology under research project UGB 502-6700-23-759. Z.Y.O. acknowledges scholarship from St John’s College, University of Cambridge. A.J.-S. gratefully acknowledges a postdoctoral scholarship from the Max Planck Society and the Spanish Ministry of Universities for funding through a Beatriz Galindo Research fellowship BG20/00015. K.G. appreciates support from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education within the Mobilnosc Plus program (grant no.1603/MOB/V/2017/0) and the National Science Centre (2022/47/D/ST5/03332). Y.S. acknowledges CSC Cambridge Scholarship. J.F.O and C.D. acknowledge funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Nano Doctoral Training Centre (EP/L015978/1). K.F. acknowledges a George and Lilian Schiff Studentship, Winton Sustainability Fund Studentship, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) studentship. H.S. thanks the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) grant EP/S023046/1 for the EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Training in Sensor Technologies for a Healthy and Sustainable Future. S.Kahmann is grateful for funding from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) (91793256) for a short-term research fellowship, and from the Leverhulme Early Career Fellowship funded by the Leverhulme Trust (ECF-2022-593) and the Isaac Newton Trust (22.08(i)). G.V. acknowledges the support of the Spanish Ministry of Education, Vocational Training and Sports through a Beca de Colaboración (Grant No. 23CO1/000162). M.A. acknowledges funding from the Leverhulme Early Career Fellowship (grant agreement No. ECF-2019-224) funded by the Leverhulme Trust and the Isaac Newton Trust and from the Royal Academy of Engineering under the Research Fellowship programme. M.A. and G.V. acknowledge support from MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and the European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR through a PID2022-142525OA-I00 grant and a Ramón y Cajal Fellowship (RYC2021-034941-I). S.D.S. acknowledges the Royal Society and Tata Group (grant no. UF150033). We thank Youcheng Zhang (Cavendish laboratory, University of Cambridge) for ITO conductivity checks. For the purpose of open access, the authors have applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.