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Item Embargo Brides of Drought: (Un)tying the Knots Between Climate, Cane, and Early Marriage in Western IndiaSubramanian, ReetikaThis thesis examines the tensions and interactions between social reproduction and the trajectories of accumulation in India’s historically drought-affected Marathwada region. By drawing connections between everyday experiences and broader socio-ecological shifts, it focuses on the high prevalence and practice of early marriage in the region, situating it within the context of climate change, capitalist labour markets, and gendered relations. Specifically, the study documents the ways in which cyclical drought in Marathwada and the evolving labour arrangements in the adjoining western sugar belt, from male gangs to husband-wife pairs, have multiplied the drivers and compounded the issue of early marriage in the region. The study combines a social reproduction framework with girlhood and feminist political ecology theories to present a twofold argument: first, poor rainfall and plummeting groundwater tables, coupled with the loss of local livelihoods and the imperative to migrate, are driving the cycle of early marriage in Marathwada, as ‘marriages of survival’. Second, by deliberately assimilating the marital unit into the labour unit—marked by social exclusion, devaluation of gendered labour, economic exploitation, and intergenerational power dynamics—the sugar industry (re)produces ‘young wife-workers’ to ensure profitability and further expansion. Ultimately, I demonstrate how, if left unchecked, this self-perpetuating cycle—given its current pace, complexity, and scale—has the potential to spiral, leading to the breakdown of the very structures and relationships that underpin it. The thesis is based on a multi-sited feminist ethnography, including intergenerational conversations and group discussions with migrant cane harvesters, key stakeholder interviews, and thick field notes documented in the villages, canefields, and the journeys in transit between October 2020 and August 2021. It further draws on the region’s rich oral tradition of grind mill songs of labour composed and passed down by women over generations.Item Embargo Rethinking the Liberian Predicament in Anti-Black Terms: On Repatriation, Modernity, and the Ethno-Racial Choreographies of Civil WarOsman, OlaLiberia’s protracted civil war was sustained for a period of 14-years (1989-2003), killing approximately 250 000 Liberians and displacing half of the population. Liberia’s war, like other contemporary African conflicts, has been persistently represented as an example of wanton violence, political tribalism, chaos, or an amalgamation of such elements. Founded in 1822, the Colony of Liberia was annexed by the American Colonization Society to expatriate and colonize ‘free’ negros and their descendants on the coast of West Africa. ‘Re-colonization’, as it was called by the ruling U.S. Southern class, was rendered a compromise between the absolute abolition of the transatlantic slave trade and perpetual black servitude. Yet, repatriation was superficially crafted by abolitionists and their pro-slavery contemporaries, alike, as a fugitive project, an opportunity for ‘free’ blacks to experiment with emancipation and take refuge from the socio-political and economic conditions which amounted to what was effectively American slavery by another name. Formerly enslaved and free-born Africans imagined Liberia as a space unmarked by anti-black racial logics that possessed the North American continent. Indeed, the West African settlement was rhetorically propagated as a pre-racial site - of sorts - in which stolen peoples could escape the violence of American racialism. Such rhetoric has made articulable contemporary theorizations of the Liberian civil war as a paradigmatic example of the negro’s irresponsible experimentations with freedom. This dissertation offers a re-contemplation of Liberian historiographical accounts, one that attends to the racialized global orders against which this national crisis has developed and limns the im/possibility of freedom in the afterlife of slavery, where anti-black terror is not only temporally unbounded but transgeographical.Item Embargo Making a Victim: How White Slavery Discourse Shapes the UK’s Anti-trafficking StrategyForringer-Beal, AnnaThe research question guiding this dissertation is, ‘How can queer methodology help to understand the conceptualisation of modern slavery in the UK?’ To answer this question, I begin with present-day UK modern slavery policy and investigate themes of ideal victimhood that have persisted within contemporary discourse. I propose that the figure of the ‘ideal victim’ constructed within white slavery narratives at the turn of the twentieth century remains central to the framing of British anti-trafficking policy today. I turn towards queer genealogy to untangle the ‘ideal victim’ from her role in white slavery narratives and its echoes in contemporary anti-trafficking policy. This is for three reasons. First, a queer critique highlights how national borders become inscribed on a gendered and racialised body. Second, an examination of Butlerian subjectivity within the law demonstrates how there is not necessarily a ‘real’ subject within the law, but rather one which is constructed within and by the law to uphold larger political structures. Third, queer temporality reminds us that ideal victims as subjects within the law are not just a linear continuation of historic nationalist practice, but rather a manifestation of power which, like any dominant discourse, must be continually practised and reinforced. A queer reading of the ideal victim then, is uniquely positioned to bring historic discourse into conversation with contemporary anti-trafficking policy. In order to do this, I pull from two sources of data. First are the Annual Reports of the National Vigilance Association (NVA) from 1885-1912. Where a volume of Annual Reports are missing (1899 - 1906), I have consulted the Executive Committee Meeting Notes and NVA letters exchanged with the Home Office. These reports were read and coded in NVivo (a qualitative coding software program) with adjectives that the NVA used to characterise victims and perpetrators to understand how they began to define subjects within their work. Second are a collection of interviews with stakeholders involved in the production of the Modern Slavery Act (MSA). These interviews were transcribed and coded in NVivo to understand the framing participants used to describe modern slavery and trafficking victims. The aim is to illuminate how policy makers on the MSA conceive of the UK’s modern slavery strategy and explore if thematic resonances from the early twentieth century persist in contemporary law. This project demonstrates how historic narratives surrounding white slavery reoccur in contemporary discussions of modern slavery because they serve to metaphorically and materially reinforce UK borders and justify inadequate response to asylum seekers. This is done by creating a hierarchy of victimhood in which the ideal victim from white slavery remains central to the political and public discourse.Item Open Access Data Flows & Menstruation: How Users of Period Trackers Navigate the Datafication & Commodification of their Menstrual CyclesFelsberger, StefanieMy PhD explores how users of cycle trackers access information about their menstrual cycles and how they understand and navigate data commodification in their everyday lives through a data justice approach. The commodification of user data is portrayed as an all-encompassing, totalising “version” of capitalism. By shifting the focus from the logic of data commodification to the ways in which people navigate this system, I contribute to a different understanding of how value is accrued from data in the digital economy. A focus on CTA users is especially useful because: first, the data these apps collect are more valuable than most user data; second, the bodies of people who menstruate have historically been controlled for in order to extract free reproductive labour. Guided by Participatory Action Research methodologies (PAR), I interviewed 30 app users in Vienna. Through a data justice lens, I introduce questions of power inequalities to discourses on privacy, moving beyond a focus on individual rights and ownership of data to address material aspects of and injustices built into data infrastructures. To do so, my PhD moves through three overarching and interconnected lines of inquiry. First, I ground my inquiry by analysing the context in which the datafication of menstrual cycles intervenes: how do people access knowledge and information about menstrual cycles. How is knowledge about menstruation shaped, controlled, and limited? I argue that menstrual knowledge is deeply shaped by ideas of normality, the imperative to conceal one’s menstrual status, and demands for menstrual management. I discuss how participants navigated these three factors to learn about their cycles. Second, I turn my attention to the use of CTAs. I investigate why and how participants find CTAs useful and essential, contributing a new understanding menstrual tracking through the lens of menstrual management. Simultaneously, I question what ways of knowing menstruation CTA data can provide users. I demonstrate that CTAs are designed for a cis-heterosexual user in monogamous relationships with a normative regular cycle and contribute a novel contextualisation of CTAs in the historical effort to make menstruation calculable and reproduction plan-able. I contribute insights into how the data- driven lens of menstruation and encoding of Norma’s cycle shape how participants track. Third, I pose two interconnected questions. How people encounter and navigate this system of data extraction in the context of their menstrual data? I argue that users strike a deliberate bargain whereby they exchange their data for a tool to manage menstruation. I argue that CTAs datafy and commodify users’ social reproductive work of managing menstruation. I contribute a different lens into how data capitalism is experienced and sustained through the lens of CTA users. Additionally, I ask how participants understand the value of the (menstrual) data they generate which are accumulated by CTAs? I argue that due to users’ experience of menstrual stigma and concealment, they assume data about menstruation to be of little to no interest in the context of data capitalism, contrary to how valuable menstrual data actually are.Item Controlled Access Gendered Harm, Legal Remedies and Women's Reintegration: A Case Study of Kenyan Women Returnees from Al ShabaabWabuke, EmmahThis research offers an original, granular account of the gendered harms faced by Kenyan women returnees in the prescriptive and programmatic operationalisation of reintegration norms in DDR-P/CVE processes. To do so, this research answers following question: ‘What gendered harms arise in operationalising reintegration norms in international policy frameworks for women returnees from terrorist groups and how can these be remedied?’ This thesis focuses on Kenyan women returnees from Al Shabaab and draws on doctrinal analysis of policy documents, including, Women, Peace and Security Agenda and empirical data collated from key informant interviews, including, Kenyan Anti-Terror Police Unit and civil society organisations. From these, I found that women returnees face specific gendered harms as part of their reintegration processes. These harms originate from the marginalised social location these women are situated which invisiblises their experiences, leading to their exclusion from P/CVE policy and programming. This overall finding encompasses the three main contributions of this thesis as follows. First, I generated an analytical gendered harm framework which drew from existing literature on feminist theory on law, peace and security. While a variety of previous studies have applied the term ‘gendered harm’ as illustrative of different ways in which women experience harm, my framework extends these illustrations into an analytical framing by developing three broad considerations as follows. These are, first, subjects of gendered harm, which focuses on the male body politic and women-as-victims framing; objects, which looks into the character and typology of gendered harm, including, ways in which this harm is social, relational and hierarchical; and, third, the importance of provision of remedy. In its second main contribution, this thesis deploys the developed gendered harm framework to identify the exclusions that women returnees experience in the prescriptive and programmatic operationalisation of WPS and DDR-CVE Policies in Kenya. Selection of these two ambits of inquiry ensures a holistic account of women returnees’ lived experiences in both policy and implementation. As documented in the research findings, present DDR-CVE framework in Kenya, chiefly represented by NSCVE and KNAP II, aligns with liberal feminist principles, adopting an 'add women and stir' approach without offering substantial guidance on instigating a paradigm shift in gender prescriptions within existing policies. Consequently, women returnees are subjected to hermeneutical and structural violence, wherein their experiences and needs remain inadequately addressed within policy landscape. On programmatic operationalisation, this thesis reveals the importance of transcending securitized approaches and adopting a gender-responsive perspective when devising and implementing reintegration programs. The third main contribution of this thesis is to propose legal remedies that can be used to address gendered harms experienced by Kenyan women returnees during their reintegration process. While conventional legal discourse on WPS and DDR-CVE uses Public International Law (PIL), in this thesis, I instead found a focus on International Human Rights Law, particularly the concept of due diligence, as a better benchmark for measuring state responsibilities towards individuals. This thesis proposes a focus on the due diligence to legislate and puts forward specific ways this mandate remedies existing gendered harms for women returnees. In this contribution, I also propose specific methods for overcoming justiciable hurdles and normative gaps that are present in standards of due diligence.Item Embargo Loveability: A Critical Theory for Understanding Love, Humanness, and Futurity in the Age of the Sex RobotMoran, JennyThis thesis centres on the emotion of Love as a grand narrative into which experiences of affect are ordered. While many critical works have explored which beings are imagined to possess lives that matter to the project of coloniality, these writings have largely centred on rationality as the trait according to which the “color-line of the human” is drawn. However, non-living objects and living beings that are not humans also exist within this hierarchy. Furthermore, a growing body of scholarship demonstrates the importance of affective economies to the hierarchisation of beings and objects’ conjectured liveliness. This thesis delineates how a non-living object can be re-presented as having a life that matters to coloniality when it is positioned Loveable within the dominant ontology. It focuses on robotic objects made Loveable in a contemporary period of increasingly divorced beingness and objecthood. Three narratively-encoded vectors which dominantly direct affect into Love under coloniality are identified: Intelligibility, Recognisability, and Adaptability. The genealogical formations of these vectors are examined in reference to Loveable robots: the Tropic Gynoid, MIT’s Kismet, the humanoid of the uncanny valley, synthetically-modelled systems, and Bina48. The robots act as case studies into normative assumptions of how humanness, and indeed aliveness, should look and be performed to be positioned as Loveable within the dominant ontology. This study thus provides a critical framework for understanding the role of Love in attributing highly-valuated liveliness to non-living things within the project of coloniality.Item Open Access (Im)possible childhoods: contesting healthcare for gender and sex diverse youthYarrow, ElizabethThis study explores health provision for gender and sex diverse (GSD) children and young people in National Health Service (NHS) settings in England, Wales and Scotland. Recent years have been a time of profound challenge to traditional ideas about gender and identity. Young people have been developing increasingly diverse ways of thinking about and expressing gender. At the same time there has been a proliferation in the number of young people experiencing issues with gender seeking out health services. These dynamics have incited intense public, policy and clinical controversy, particularly over how best to support children and adolescents in specialist NHS clinics. In this interdisciplinary, mixed-methods study I analyse data from 86 qualitative interviews with (40) GSD children and young people, (31) caregivers and (15) key experts; as well as a quantitative survey with (1,776) youth ages 14-24 years. I argue that young people’s experiences and wellbeing are hampered by a system of care which assumes gender and sex typicality to be healthy, permanent, ‘natural’ and ‘real’, while forms of gender and sex variance are framed as pathological, deviant, artificial and ‘curable’. These presuppositions are rooted in naturalised accounts of sex, gender and sexual desire, which posit these categories as inextricably aligned and defined through unequivocal, binary, biological ‘truths’. Meanwhile, underpinning and regulating these ideas is a developmentalist discourse of ‘childhood’, which has depicted children as fundamentally naïve to matters of sex(uality), gender and the body, and defined gender and sex diverse knowledge, experience and expression as harmful to children’s development. I show how this matrix of beliefs functions to limit the possibilities of viable childhoods through ordering medical practices. GSD children may be either denied services or obligated to undergo interventions (both physical and psychological), without respect for their individual autonomy and informed consent. The wellbeing of GSD youth may be improved through an alternative system of care: one, which better recognises the complex heterogeneity of sexed and gendered experiences and welcomes and accommodates the creativity and agency of children.Item Controlled Access Queering Irish Women's Writing in the Twentieth CenturyMurphy, NaoiseThis dissertation examines the haunted quality of Ireland’s modernity through the fiction of mid-twentieth-century Irish women writers Dorothy Macardle, Kate O’Brien, Elizabeth Bowen and Molly Keane. Seeking out the ghosts of modern Ireland, I turn to queer ways of reading, paying attention to the marginal and the disavowed. This new reading queers the archive of twentieth-century Ireland, disrupting common-sense narratives of modernity and modernisation, gender, sexuality and race in the postcolonial state. Irish women’s writing is entangled in reductive narratives of modernisation that create a feel-good account of contemporary Ireland, disavowing the structures of domination and exclusion that continue to define the country. Ireland’s modernity is haunted; bad feelings cannot be banished to the over-and-done-with past, but instead erupt in chaotic and disturbing ways in the modern nation. Contending with the violence of the official archive, a particularly vexed issue in the context of Ireland’s legacies of institutional abuse, this dissertation argues for a queer refusal to move on from bad feelings as a form of narrative resistance. In their improper responses to the imperatives of the post-independence state, Bowen, O’Brien, Keane and Macardle dwell on bad and backward feelings that disrupt the forward-moving, feel-good temporality of modernity. Where the state valorises the progressive time of reproduction, family and nation, these writers indulge in illicit, unrespectable affects. Bringing resources from queer, trans and postcolonial theory into dialogue with feminist criticism, this queering of Irish women’s writing delves into the shadow side of Irish modernity. Chapter One reads Dorothy Macardle’s middlebrow gothic novels for their critique of the postcolonial carceral state. Macardle’s (re)publication history shows how women writers haunt the mainstream, but are themselves haunted by the violences enacted on racially and sexually Othered subjects. Her republican intransigence combines with a deep attraction to the supernatural in novels that depict a haunted vision of twentieth-century Ireland. Chapter Two explores Kate O’Brien’s anxious and defensive formulation of the queer holy woman in her fiction. Drawing on archival research and queer theories of (stone) butch sexualities, I seek out the stigmatised, pathologised, racialised and unrespectable forms of deviance that haunt her construction of a modern Irish queer identity. Chapter Three considers the Anglo-Irish Elizabeth Bowen’s melancholic attachments, tracing her method of coming ‘unstuck’ from temporality backward through her post-WWII and wartime writing. I argue that moments of failure, loss, disloyalty and unhappiness in her work express a queerly generative critical relationship to modernity. Chapter Four reads Molly Keane’s fiction as a camp commentary on the bad feelings of post-independence Ireland, from the vantage point of the declining colonial class. Closetedness and wilful ignorance disrupt modern mechanisms of disavowal, expressing a queered relationship to the haunting undercurrents of violence that define twentieth-century Ireland. This dissertation intervenes in Irish studies and queer studies, offering a provocative re-reading of Irish culture in the twentieth century and demonstrating the power of queer reading to carve out space for those dissenting, untimely subjects made ghostly by the operations of modernity.Item Open Access The Women's Equality Party: Sustainability, Longevity, and ImpactsVickers, Lisa MarieThis thesis investigates how the Women’s Equality Party (WEP) in the United Kingdom has struggled to utilise its standing as a political party to ensure that women’s interests are represented throughout the British political landscape. WEP emerged in 2015 out of a dissatisfaction with mainstream politics and a want to put women’s interests at the top of the political agenda. The party reasoned that if women’s equality could be accepted as a ‘vote winner’ by mainstream parties, it would no longer need to exist. WEP leaders boldly called upon mainstream parties to take on its policies and to ‘put it out of business’. This thesis looks at the difficulties WEP has faced in carrying out this rhetorical device in practice. Discourse analysis, interviews, and participatory action research – along with comparisons made with the Feminist Initiative in Sweden, as well as Women’s Alliance/List and Women’s Movement in Iceland – are used to interrogate this important concept. This thesis begins by analysing key aspects of WEP’s identity, including its status as a women’s/feminist party and its non-partisan positioning. It goes on to assess WEP’s abilities to descriptively and substantively represent women, and the party’s unique positioning at the crossroads between movement and institutionalised politics. Ultimately, this thesis looks at how WEP utilises its institutional positioning as a political party, and if permanence is necessary to carry out its aim to represent women. This thesis contributes to broader debates concerning women’s and feminist organising, the development of ‘good representation’ of women, social movements’ interactions with the state, and institutional tools to mobilise effective change.Item Controlled Access Queer, Cannibal, Brazilian: The Temporal Politics of Sexuality in Brazilian Cultural ProductionDemartini Brito, JulianaThe dissertation intervenes in queer and Brazilian studies by reframing sexual narratives of Brazil’s modern subject formation through contemporary queer cultural productions. It argues that the colonial employment of temporal terms such as origin, progress, development, and copy established longstanding narratives of Brazilian nationality, culture, and sexuality as backward. Through the mixed-race symbol of the *mestiço*, early twentieth-century nationalist discourse fashioned a vision of the country’s past and future based on European heterosexual intervention, which “docilized,” therefore “developed,” the country’s regressive subject. The project counters this perspective, which remains popular in contemporary Brazil, by attending to writer Oswald de Andrade’s founding text for Brazilian cultural practices, *Cannibalist Manifesto* (1928). It argued for the Brazilian writer’s critical “cannibalization” of dominant cultures to reevaluate the country’s place in the modern world beyond the colonizer’s temporal markers. Yet, theories on how Oswald challenged Brazil’s cultural expression and modern subject as copies of Europe have lacked attention to the strategy’s entanglement with sexuality. Combining the *Cannibalist Manifesto* with queer theories of temporality, the dissertation argues that breaking apart the time of the colony through Oswald’s cannibalism also requires dismantling the sexual assumptions of the modern Brazilian subject as a product of mixed-race heterosexual reproduction. It thinks with Oswald’s strategy and queer theory to argue that film, experimental art, and activism have queerly troubled Brazil’s scripted past, present, and future by apprehending the dominant tools that compose the country’s modern subjectivity while remaining critical to Western queer literature. Through Karim Aïnouz’s film *Madame Satã* (2002), Hélio Oiticica’s anti-art experiments, and protests demanding justice for Marielle Franco, the dissertation composes a cannibalist form of reading, documenting, and enacting nonheteronormative sexualities with and through the apparent rigid structure that frames Brazil’s past, present, and future, provoking a reckoning of how the employment of time can establish narratives of nationality, culture, and sexuality.Item Open Access Syrian Refugee Storytelling and the ‘Survivor-Witness-Messenger’: Knowledge and Violence in Displacement NarrativesDoyle, JuliaTaking an interdisciplinary approach to the study of Syrian refugee narratives (in original oral history interviews, memoirs and news media), the thesis carries out a discourse analysis of a variety of texts to examine how subjectivities and global relations of power are discursively produced and cited. Following Carolyn J. Dean’s ‘survivor-witness’ figure, the thesis proposes the ‘survivor-witness-messenger’ as a role through which to interpret the complex and contesting demands made upon Syrian refugee narrators. This suggestion builds on Dean’s term by emphasising the interlocking relation of movement, survival and the deliverance of testimony in existing discourses around Syrian refugees as well as within their own stories. The thesis is concerned with possible interpretations of the texts which read for citations of this figure, whether through occupying the role, explicitly rejecting it or engaging with it ambivalently, and how such citations produce the narrators as international political subjects. The first half of the thesis focuses on how the narrators discursively produce certain spaces as having a racializing and gendering effect of dehumanisation upon displaced subjects as well as on the contested and complex narrative explorations of the politics of gratitude as a producing a pressure to narrativize suffering for Western audiences. In the second half, the thesis’s argument for the possibility of reading for such discursive engagements with space, gender, race and humanity through the ‘survivor-witness-messenger’ figure turns to the intertextual relations between the texts analysed, other Syrian refugee narratives and wider international discourses on refugees, violence and testimony. From metaphors comparing regime oppression in Syria to scenes of domestic violence to the genres coalescing around narrators based on gender and age, these chapters argue for a recognition of an inter-connected network of international actors involved in the production and commodification of Syrian stories with a multiplicity of implications for the discursive shaping of categories such as refugee, witness and human.Item Open Access Performative Parenting: Social Norms and Fathers' Use of Parental Leave EntitlementsAllen, Juliet Louise; Allen, Juliet [0000-0001-5437-8293]Fathers’ use of parental leave is a crucial policy issue in relation to gender equality and at the root of gendered caring norms and unequal divisions of labour throughout the life course. Using comparative mixed methods and a framework that conceptualises parenting as gendered and performative (Butler, 1999), this research contributes knowledge of the influence on fathers’ parental leave decisions of three dimensions of norms: policy, discourse and cultural norms; workplace cultures; and peer and family group norms. I compare the effect of social norms on the decisions made by fathers working for the same multinational firm in three countries: the UK, Sweden and Portugal. I argue that a Butlerian understanding can help answer the question frequently posed in the literature: why, when we know couples have egalitarian intentions prior to the birth of a first child, do couples slip back into conservative gender roles once the child has arrived (Fox, 2019; Grunow and Veltkamp, 2016; Miller, 2011)? I provide a comparative backdrop to the three focus countries, to contextualise the path dependencies underpinning the enabling parental leave policy and culture in Sweden and the contradictory and ambiguous parental leave policies and cultures in the UK and Portugal. I use data from the 2017 wave of the European Values Study to demonstrate the differences in attitudes towards gender roles between the three countries. I find that overall, Sweden holds the most egalitarian values, followed by the UK, and then Portugal, where the data reflects ‘normative ambiguity’ (Wall, 2015). I then theorise the extent to which each of the three domains of norms shaped fathers’ use of leave in the three countries, through analysis of qualitative data collected in 45 interviews with fathers. I argue that the widespread normative support for gender equality embedded in Swedish culture, alongside the enabling policy framework first introduced in 1974, contributed to the existence of a robust ‘citation’ (Butler, 1993) for fathers’ use of parental leave entitlements, which cannot fully exist in Portugal and the UK under the current discursive and material conditions. My argument, via a Butlerian critique of regulation that posits parental leave policy frameworks as both regulated by and regulating gender, thus contributes to the body of work foregrounding the centrality of non-transferable leave entitlements to fathers’ use of leave. At work, despite conducting interviews with fathers at the same firm in each country, organisational culture was highly divergent between the nations. Bringing organisational culture studies together with Butler’s performative ontology of gender, I thus theorise organisational culture as gender regulation and conceptualise the ‘performative breadwinner’, articulating the inability of many of the fathers to cease reproducing the masculine ‘ideal worker’ norm. The micro-level insights documented demonstrate how fathers’ everyday experiences are shaped by cultural backdrop, peer behaviour and forms of social constraint that form the choice architecture that shapes individual decisions. The research offers an original, granular account of the iterative process through which ‘father-friendly’ leave entitlements, combined with discursive changes, contribute to wider uptake of leave entitlements, and how shifts in norms over time are made possible – or not – through citationality.Item Open Access Judges’ Gender and Judging in ChinaWei, ShuaiAfter women began entering the judiciary in appreciable numbers, scholars worldwide started asking whether their gender would influence their decision-making processes. Although empirical findings are mixed, the research literature reveals that judges’ gender is a predictive factor in gender-related cases—especially those involving employment discrimination, sexual harassment, and reproductive rights. These findings not only advance feminists’ aspirations that female judges can translate symbolic representation into substantive representation of women, but contribute to the long-standing observations about how judges of different backgrounds actually decide cases. This PhD dissertation follows this research tradition and examines the effect of gender in the process of judging within the context of Chinese criminal justice system. Chapters two and three, which used quantitative research methods, examine whether female judges decide cases differently from their male colleagues, and whether the presence of a female judge on a three-member panel causes male judges to vote in favour of plaintiffs in rape cases. In chapter two, I discuss my analysis of 11,006 court judgments from 2016 to 2018 across 11 crime types in Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou. The results revealed negligible differences between the sorts of decisions made by male and female district court judges. Nevertheless, the similarities in the decision to incarcerate can be explained by a harmonious ‘Iron Triangle’ relationship among the police, the procuratorate, and the court. The Sentencing Guidelines and the Adjudication Committees of the courts are mechanisms that align judicial behaviours in the same direction. The initial findings in chapter three, based on 6,100 judgements of rape cases from 2010 to 2018 in Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou, also suggested that there is no ‘panel effect’. However, when certain stimuli, such as the social network relationship between victims and offenders, are introduced, panels with different combinations of male and female judges exhibit different sentencing preferences: When a female judge decided the outcome of a case together with two male judges, the panel often issued a shorter sentence length, compared to the sentence length issued by an all-female panel. Chapters four and five, which used qualitative research methods, uncover the behavioural differences at work between male and female judges. In chapter four, it is shown that female judges are accustomed to employ mediation as a preferred dispute resolution method when facilitating reconciliation between two parties and are more likely to seek civil compensation for victims. This study reveals that in the Chinese criminal justice system, behavioural differences between male and female judges exist in the process, as well as in the outcomes of judgments. Chapter five explores male and female judges’ attitudes in criminal cases related to domestic violence. I found that senior male judges tended to minimise or excuse male offenders’ assaults on their female partners in domestic violence cases, arguably because those male offenders were brought up in a masculine culture at an early age, or because they often experience work and family pressures at the same time, and those are feelings that some junior male judges can relate to. Female judges, on the other hand, tended to blame female victims for the improper behaviours that they engaged in with their husbands, or for failing to cut ties with their husbands quickly and resolutely. These negative attitudes from female judges towards female victims demonstrate the impossibility that the latter could fit the image of ‘ideal victims’. This study demonstrates that both male and female judges, regardless of age differences, possess unconscious biases and prejudices during criminal trials for domestic violence cases. The findings in this PhD dissertation compel us to reflect on the benefits and drawbacks of pursuing ‘gender differences in judging’ put forward by feminist legal scholars.Item Open Access Bodies at their Limits: Rethinking Political Violence Through Women’s Hunger Strikes(2021-07-31) Mackereth, KerryHunger strikers operate in a liminal space between the active political subject and the passive object of violence that underpin many theories of political violence. Through a feminist and anti-racist analysis of two women’s hunger strikes in the United Kingdom – the hunger strikes conducted by members of the British suffragette movement between 1909-1914 and the 2018 hunger strike at Yarl’s Wood Immigration Removal Centre (IRC) – this thesis makes three arguments regarding how women’s hunger strikes challenge theories of political violence centred around the liberal humanist subject. First, in response to approaches that frame hunger strikes as a form of political speech, this thesis argues that gender and race shape how the pained body speaks. Second, it insists that an analysis of what the hunger-striking body says must also include an interrogation of what the hunger striking body does. Consequently, this thesis examines the performative qualities of the hunger strikes in the suffragette movement and at Yarl’s Wood, showing how the significance and the effects of these hunger strikes extended beyond their rhetorical effects. Third, this thesis argues that hunger strikes have the potential to undermine the liberal humanist figure at the centre of many theories of political violence. It notes that the suffragettes’ use of hunger strikes in the service of an imperialist political agenda demonstrates how hunger striking in and of itself does not necessarily disrupt this liberal humanist ideal. However, it also contends that the Yarl’s Wood hunger strike shows how hunger striking can challenge the division between the liberal humanist subject and its inhuman ‘others’. Together, these three arguments lay the foundations for rethinking certain concepts of political violence, in particular how political violence produces the human and its inhuman counterparts, and how self-destructive political protests may disrupt this distinction.Item Embargo Making a Life for Themselves: Gender, Identity, and Everyday Negotiations of Rohingya Women in Bangladesh’s Refugee CampsRahman, Farhana AfrinThis dissertation examines the everyday negotiations, contestations, and strategies that Rohingya refugee women employ to make a life for themselves after forced migration. Based on fourteen months of feminist ethnographic fieldwork in Bangladesh’s Kutupalong-Balukhali mega-camp between 2017 and 2018, this dissertation focuses on how Rohingya refugee women deal with the process of settling into the camp, negotiate marriage and other intimate experiences, adjust to changing gender divisions of labour, and navigate encounters with humanitarian aid agencies and male camp leaders. It pays particular attention to the emerging and shifting power relations within the camp and its impact on Rohingya refugee women’s everyday subjectivities. Rohingya refugee women engage in strategic choices and bargaining to reconstruct their lives in displacement, thereby reclaiming agency and asserting their identity despite their circumstances. This dissertation thus suggests that refugee women’s everyday tactics and contestations challenge and overturn deeply embedded gender ideologies regarding women’s place in settings after forced migration. It uncovers the capacity of refugee women to bring about changes in their own lives through the spaces they create, inhabit, and reshape; the coping mechanisms they employ; and the bonds of kinship and community they forge.Item Open Access Posthuman War: Race, Gender, Technology, and the Making of U.S. Military FuturesMoore, LenaThis dissertation investigates drone warfare, the production of Special Operations Forces, and innovations in the medical treatment of war-related trauma, drawing these together to propose they may be read as indicative of a larger military “Posthuman Project” that is driving technological developments and practice in the U.S. military. Through a critical race theory and feminist war studies framework, it addresses this military posthumanity as a fantasy vision of future invulnerability, total knowledge, and control that is inseparable from fantasies of white supremacy that are built into the foundations of U.S. empire. It argues that in this context, the posthuman as well as the human remain exclusionary political categories that have their sense made through processes of gendering and racialization, in spite of military discourses of technologically-driven neutrality and progress away from human fallibility. In the course of examining the three case studies, this work finds that the state wields the categories of human and posthuman as tools to justify and naturalize empire and war-waging, and in so doing it justifies and naturalizes race and gender as tools of oppression. This reveals, ultimately, the malleability of these categories, and demonstrates the extent to which harnessing this malleability is a primary way of making state power itself seem necessary and inevitable. This work seeks to contribute to recent discussions about how race and gender produce warfare, and likewise have their sense made through acts of war and the development and deployment of advanced technologies. Similarly, drawing on lessons about the violence of the “human” from Black feminist thought, it seeks to suggest to critical scholars ways of thinking about the posthuman and war that do not lose sight of the inherent violence of these categories.