Diplomacy by Dispensation: Arms Embargoes, “Illicit” Gifts and Papal Oversight in Mantuan–Ottoman Exchange

Abstract

This article revisits a famous case of transgressive gift-giving between Christian and Muslim rulers, apparently in violation of papal embargoes that banned the export of war materiel. Involving the exchange of Italian-made arms and armour for Ottoman horses, the relationship between Francesco II Gonzaga of Mantua and Sultan Bāyezīd II from 1489 to 1499 has been taken to exemplify a Renaissance ethos of cosmopolitan expediency that replaced divisive religious attitudes prevalent in the medieval period. Examining correspondence from the Archivio Gonzaga, this article conclusively demonstrates that on the contrary, Gonzaga consistently complied with papal regulations. Introducing the concept of “diplomacy by dispensation” to understand how this compliance helped Gonzaga legitimise his gifts, forestall criticism and remain in communion with the Church, it amplifies the growing recognition that embargoes, a regulatory and discursive legacy of medieval crusading, continued to shape cross-confessional commerce and diplomacy through the end of the fifteenth century.