Microfabrication challenges and strategies for electrochemical actuators in miniature soft robotics for biomedical applications

Abstract

Electrochemical actuators (ECAs) are uniquely suited for biomedical microrobotics due to their low-voltage operation, intrinsic softness, and compatibility with biocompatible materials. However, transitioning these actuators from lab-scale prototypes to integrated, functional microsystems remains a significant challenge. This perspective examines the evolution of ECA microfabrication, from traditional manual approaches to high-precision photolithography and emerging additive manufacturing techniques, and evaluates the trade-offs associated with each approach. Photolithography enables precise microscale patterning, particularly for bilayer architectures, while printing techniques provide material versatility and rapid, low-waste prototyping that is increasingly suitable for multilayer trilayer devices. We argue that future progress will rely on hybrid fabrication strategies that combine cleanroom precision with digitally programmable printing. By coordinating efforts in materials optimization, system-level integration, and robust packaging, the field can overcome current scalability bottlenecks and unlock the full commercialization potential of ECA-driven soft microrobotics in healthcare.